- The 6th century BCE saw new religious movements challenge Vedic ritualism; Buddhism and Jainism were the most enduring.
- The Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE) was the first to unite most of the subcontinent; Ashoka spread the idea of Dhamma through his edicts.
- The Gupta period (c. 4th–6th century CE) is called the "Golden Age" for its achievements in literature, mathematics, astronomy and art.
Buddha and Mahavira Compared
| Gautama Buddha | Vardhamana Mahavira | |
|---|---|---|
| Birth | Lumbini (Nepal), Shakya clan | Kundagrama near Vaishali, Jnatrika clan |
| Enlightenment | Bodh Gaya, under a pipal tree | Kaivalya at Jrimbhikagrama, on the Rijupalika river |
| First sermon | Sarnath — "Dharmachakra Pravartana" | — |
| Death | Kushinagar (Mahaparinirvana), aged 80 | Pawapuri, near Rajgir |
| Core teaching | Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path; the Middle Way | Triratna — right faith, right knowledge, right conduct; strict ahimsa |
| Sacred texts | Tripitaka, in Pali | Agamas, in Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi) |
| Later split | Hinayana and Mahayana (4th council) | Svetambara and Digambara |
Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara; Parshvanatha was the 23rd and Rishabhanatha the first.
The Four Buddhist Councils
| Council | Place | Patron | Presided by | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First (c. 483 BCE) | Rajagriha | Ajatashatru | Mahakashyapa | Sutta and Vinaya Pitakas compiled |
| Second (c. 383 BCE) | Vaishali | Kalashoka | Sabakami | First split — Sthaviras and Mahasanghikas |
| Third (c. 250 BCE) | Pataliputra | Ashoka | Moggaliputta Tissa | Abhidhamma Pitaka; missionaries sent abroad |
| Fourth (1st century CE) | Kashmir (Kundalvana) | Kanishka | Vasumitra (Ashvaghosha deputy) | Split into Hinayana and Mahayana |
Mauryan founderChandragupta, c. 321 BCE
Kalinga Warc. 261 BCE
Brahmi decipheredJames Prinsep, 1837
Saka era78 CE
Aryabhatiya499 CE
Harsha606–647 CE
The Mauryan Empire
- Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nandas around 321 BCE with Chanakya (Kautilya), author of the Arthashastra. He defeated Seleucus Nicator, whose ambassador Megasthenes wrote Indica. Late in life he became a Jain and died at Shravanabelagola.
- Bindusara was called "Amitraghata" (slayer of enemies) by the Greeks.
- Ashoka fought the Kalinga War around 261 BCE; his remorse is recorded in Major Rock Edict XIII. He promoted Dhamma — tolerance, non-violence and welfare.
- Most edicts are in Prakrit in Brahmi script; north-western ones use Kharosthi, and Afghan ones Greek and Aramaic. James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi in 1837. The name "Ashoka" itself appears in the Maski edict; others call him "Devanampiya Piyadasi".
- The Sarnath Lion Capital was adopted as India's National Emblem on January 26, 1950.
- The last Maurya, Brihadratha, was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga around 185 BCE.
Between the Mauryas and the Guptas
The Kushans ruled from Central Asia to the Ganga plain. Kanishka is linked to the start of the Saka era (78 CE) — the base of India's national calendar — and patronised the 4th Buddhist Council. The Gandhara school (Greco-Roman style, grey schist) and the Mathura school (red sandstone, indigenous) of sculpture flourished. In the Deccan, the Satavahanas issued coins with the mothers' names of kings (e.g., Gautamiputra Satakarni).
The Gupta Empire
- Chandragupta I began the Gupta era in 319–320 CE.
- Samudragupta's conquests are recorded in the Allahabad (Prayag) Pillar inscription, composed by his court poet Harisena. V.A. Smith called him the "Napoleon of India".
- Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) defeated the Western Kshatrapas; the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited during his reign, and Kalidasa is associated with his court. The rust-free Iron Pillar at Mehrauli is attributed to him.
- Science: Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiya (499 CE) and explained that the Earth rotates on its axis; Varahamihira wrote the Brihat Samhita.
- Nalanda university is traditionally linked to Kumaragupta I. Repeated Huna invasions weakened the empire by the late 5th century.
Harsha (606–647 CE)
Harshavardhana ruled from Kannauj. His court poet Banabhatta wrote the Harshacharita, and the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) studied at Nalanda during his reign. His southward advance was stopped on the Narmada by the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II, as recorded in the Aihole inscription.
- Council tables: exams give place, patron or president and ask for the council — memorise the table row by row.
- "Who visited during whose reign?": Megasthenes → Chandragupta Maurya; Fa-Hien → Chandragupta II; Hiuen Tsang → Harsha.
- Inscription → king: Allahabad Pillar → Samudragupta; Aihole → Pulakeshin II; Rock Edict XIII → Ashoka's Kalinga War.
Q1. The Fourth Buddhist Council, which split Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana, was held under:
✅ Answer: (b) Kanishka
💡 Explanation: Kanishka patronised the Fourth Council in Kashmir, presided over by Vasumitra.
Q2. Ashoka's remorse after the Kalinga War is described in:
✅ Answer: (a) Major Rock Edict XIII
💡 Explanation: Rock Edict XIII records the suffering of the war and Ashoka's turn to Dhamma.
Q3. The Allahabad Pillar inscription praising Samudragupta was composed by:
✅ Answer: (c) Harisena
💡 Explanation: Harisena was Samudragupta's court poet; Ravikirti wrote the Aihole inscription.
Q4. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of:
✅ Answer: (d) Chandragupta II
💡 Explanation: Fa-Hien travelled in India c. 399–414 CE, during Chandragupta II's reign.
Q5. Who deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837?
✅ Answer: (b) James Prinsep
💡 Explanation: James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi, which made Ashoka's edicts readable.
🔁 Revise in 60 Seconds
- Buddha: Lumbini → Bodh Gaya → Sarnath → Kushinagar.
- Mahavira: 24th Tirthankara; Kundagrama → Pawapuri.
- Councils: Rajagriha (Ajatashatru), Vaishali (Kalashoka), Pataliputra (Ashoka), Kashmir (Kanishka).
- Visitors: Megasthenes (Maurya), Fa-Hien (Chandragupta II), Hiuen Tsang (Harsha).
📌 Prelims Traps to Avoid
- ✘ The Saka era (78 CE) is linked to Kanishka, not a Saka king, in most exam keys.
- ✘ Brahmagupta (628 CE) is often wrongly placed in the Gupta court — he lived after the Guptas.
- ✘ Hinayana/Mahayana split came at the fourth council; the second council caused the first split.
Where did the Buddha give his first sermon?
At the deer park in Sarnath, near Varanasi. The sermon is called Dharmachakra Pravartana, the "turning of the wheel of Dhamma".
Why is the Gupta period called the Golden Age?
Because of its achievements in literature (Kalidasa), mathematics and astronomy (Aryabhata, Varahamihira), art and temple architecture, alongside relative political stability in northern India.