- Questions on international environmental agreements appear in almost every UPSC Prelims paper. They test what a convention deals with, where and when it was signed, and which protocol belongs to which convention.
- The easiest way to remember them is by theme: wetlands and wildlife, biodiversity, the ozone layer, chemicals and waste, and land and climate.
- Climate treaties (UNFCCC, Kyoto, Paris) are covered in detail in our Climate Change & India notes.
Wetlands and Wildlife
| Convention | Signed | Deals with |
|---|---|---|
| Ramsar Convention | 1971, Ramsar (Iran) | Conservation of wetlands of international importance. India joined in 1982; its first sites were Chilika and Keoladeo. India now has more than 90 Ramsar sites — Tamil Nadu has the most, and the Sundarbans is the largest. The Montreux Record lists threatened sites (Keoladeo and Loktak in India) |
| CITES | 1973, Washington | International trade in endangered wild animals and plants. Appendix I — trade generally banned; Appendix II — trade controlled by permits; Appendix III — protected by at least one country |
| CMS (Bonn Convention) | 1979, Bonn | Migratory species; India hosted COP13 at Gandhinagar (2020) |
| International Whaling Commission | 1946 | Regulation of whaling |
Biodiversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was opened for signature at the Rio Earth Summit (1992). Its three goals are conservation, sustainable use, and fair sharing of benefits from genetic resources.
- Cartagena Protocol (2000) — biosafety: safe movement of living modified organisms (LMOs).
- Nagoya Protocol (2010) — access and benefit-sharing (ABS) from genetic resources.
- Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022) — includes the "30x30" target to protect 30% of land and sea by 2030.
- India implements the CBD through the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
Ramsar1971, Iran
CITES1973, Washington
Montreal Protocol1987 (ozone)
Kigali Amendment2016 (HFCs)
UNEP HQNairobi
IUCN HQGland, Switzerland
The Ozone Layer
- The Vienna Convention (1985) set the framework; the Montreal Protocol (1987) phases out ozone-depleting substances such as CFCs. It is the first UN treaty ratified by every country, and is often called the most successful environmental agreement.
- The Kigali Amendment (2016) added the phase-down of HFCs — gases that do not harm the ozone layer but are powerful greenhouse gases. India's schedule begins with a freeze in 2028.
Chemicals and Hazardous Waste
| Convention | Signed | Deals with |
|---|---|---|
| Basel | 1989 | Transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal |
| Rotterdam | 1998 | Prior informed consent (PIC) before trade in hazardous chemicals and pesticides |
| Stockholm | 2001 | Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as DDT and dioxins |
| Minamata | 2013 | Mercury — named after mercury poisoning in Minamata, Japan |
Land and Climate
- UNCCD (1994) — combating desertification and land degradation; India hosted COP14 at Greater Noida (2019).
- UNFCCC (1992), with the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).
Organisations
| Body | Founded | Key points |
|---|---|---|
| UNEP | 1972 | Created after the Stockholm Conference; headquarters Nairobi; publishes the Emissions Gap Report |
| IPCC | 1988 | Set up by WMO and UNEP; assesses climate science (Sixth Assessment Report, 2023); shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize |
| IUCN | 1948 | Headquarters Gland, Switzerland; publishes the Red List; includes governments and NGOs |
| WWF | 1961 | Conservation NGO, also headquartered in Gland |
| Global Environment Facility (GEF) | 1991 | Funds projects under several conventions |
| Green Climate Fund | 2010 | Climate finance under the UNFCCC; based in Songdo, South Korea |
| International Solar Alliance (ISA) | 2015 | Launched by India and France at the Paris COP; headquarters Gurugram |
| Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) | 2019 | India-led; secretariat in New Delhi |
| International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) | 2023 | Launched by India for the seven big cats — tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, jaguar, puma and cheetah |
Important Days
| Day | Date |
|---|---|
| World Wetlands Day (Ramsar signing) | February 2 |
| World Wildlife Day (CITES signing) | March 3 |
| Earth Day | April 22 |
| International Day for Biological Diversity | May 22 |
| World Environment Day | June 5 |
| Desertification and Drought Day | June 17 |
| World Ozone Day | September 16 |
- Convention ↔ subject: Basel (waste), Rotterdam (PIC), Stockholm (POPs), Minamata (mercury) — the classic set of four.
- Protocol ↔ parent convention: Cartagena and Nagoya belong to the CBD; Kigali amends Montreal; Kyoto belongs to the UNFCCC.
- Organisation ↔ headquarters: UNEP Nairobi, IUCN Gland, ISA Gurugram, CDRI New Delhi.
Q1. The Cartagena Protocol deals with:
✅ Answer: (b) Biosafety of living modified organisms
💡 Explanation: Cartagena (2000) is the CBD's biosafety protocol; Nagoya deals with access and benefit-sharing.
Q2. Which convention deals with persistent organic pollutants?
✅ Answer: (a) Stockholm Convention
💡 Explanation: Stockholm (2001) covers POPs; Basel covers hazardous waste and Rotterdam prior informed consent.
Q3. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol aims to phase down:
✅ Answer: (d) HFCs
💡 Explanation: HFCs do not deplete ozone but are powerful greenhouse gases.
Q4. The headquarters of the International Solar Alliance is in:
✅ Answer: (c) Gurugram
💡 Explanation: The ISA, launched in 2015 by India and France, is headquartered in Gurugram.
Q5. Under CITES, species threatened with extinction, in which trade is generally banned, are listed in:
✅ Answer: (d) Appendix I
💡 Explanation: Appendix I bans commercial trade; Appendix II allows controlled trade with permits.
🔁 Revise in 60 Seconds
- Ramsar 1971 Iran (wetlands; India 1982; Chilika & Keoladeo first); CITES 1973 (trade; App I ban); CMS 1979 Bonn.
- CBD 1992 Rio → Cartagena (biosafety), Nagoya (ABS), Kunming–Montreal 30x30.
- Vienna 1985, Montreal 1987 (ozone), Kigali 2016 (HFCs). Basel waste, Rotterdam PIC, Stockholm POPs, Minamata mercury.
- UNEP 1972 Nairobi; IPCC 1988 (WMO+UNEP); IUCN Gland (Red List); ISA Gurugram; CDRI Delhi; IBCA 2023.
📌 Prelims Traps to Avoid
- ✘ The Ramsar Convention was signed in Iran, not Brazil or Switzerland.
- ✘ HFCs are not ozone-depleting; they were added to Montreal because they warm the climate.
- ✘ The IUCN is not a UN body — it is a union of governments and NGOs.
What is the difference between the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions?
The Basel Convention (1989) controls the movement of hazardous waste across borders. The Rotterdam Convention (1998) requires prior informed consent before hazardous chemicals and pesticides are traded. The Stockholm Convention (2001) aims to eliminate or restrict persistent organic pollutants such as DDT.
What are CITES Appendices I, II and III?
Appendix I lists species threatened with extinction, in which commercial trade is generally banned. Appendix II lists species that could become threatened unless trade is controlled through permits. Appendix III lists species protected in at least one country that has asked others for help in controlling trade.